Vertical Farming: innovation in pursuit of sustainable urban agriculture

Stephanie Quirós-Campos; Gustavo Quesada-Roldán

doi:10.17268/agroind.sci.2026.02.08

Authors

Stephanie Quirós-Campos Instituto Nacional de Innovación y Transferencia en Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Centro de Innovación Agropecuaria Edith Chaverri Chaverri. Cartago, Costa Rica. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4146-914X
Gustavo Quesada-Roldán Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR), Estación Experimental Fabio Baudrit Moreno (EEFBM), Alajuela, Costa Rica. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4171-0135

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.17268/agroind.sci.2026.02.08

Keywords:

Sustainable systems, food security, factory farms, modern technologies

Abstract

Food production is a fundamental pillar of global food systems, and vertical farming (VF) has emerged as a promising strategy to address food security challenges in urban areas. This review synthesizes evidence on VF through a systematic analysis of scientific and technical literature retrieved from Google Scholar and ScienceDirect, following the PRISMA 2020 Flow Diagram methodology. The conceptual structure of the field was examined using a term co-occurrence network analysis with VOSviewer (2025). The selected studies were classified according to the environmental, economic, and social dimensions of sustainability, with emphasis on water use efficiency and energy consumption, technical and economic feasibility, and food security, respectively. The findings indicate that VF is receiving increasing global attention due to its potential to enhance urban resilience and its growing acceptance among producers and consumers. However, VF remains an emerging technology, and further research is required to improve its feasibility, particularly through reducing environmental impacts, optimizing energy efficiency, and strengthening economic performance. Strategic investments in renewable energy, smart agriculture, and water-efficient technologies will be essential to ensure the long-term sustainability and scalability of VF in urban food systems.

References

Agati, G., Franchetti, B., Rispoli, F., & Venturini, P. (2024). Thermo-fluid dynamic analysis of the air flow inside an indoor vertical farming system. Applied Thermal Engineering, 236, Article 121553. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2023.121553

Akinmeji, A., Misra, S., Agrawal, A., Adewumi, A., Maskeliunas, R., & Damasevicius, R. (2021). A Cost-Effective Design for a Hydroponics Farm. Advances in intelligent systems and computing. 821–833. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5207-3_67

Al-Chalabi, M. (2015). Vertical farming: Skyscraper sustainability? Sustainable Cities and Society, 18, 74–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2015.06.003

Al-Kodmany, K. (2018). The vertical Farm: A Review of Developments and Implications for the Vertical City. Buildings, 8(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings8020024

Al-Qubati, A., Zhang, L., & Forkel, M. (2024). Urban and peri-urban agriculture under climate change: A review on carbon emissions and sequestration. Sustainable Cities and Society, 115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2024.105830

Arabzadeh, V., Miettinen, P., Kotilainen, T., Herranen, P., Karakoc, A., Kummu, M., & Rautkari, L. (2023). Urban vertical farming with large wind power share and optimised electricity costs. Applied Energy, 331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.120416

Arcasi, A., Mauro, A. W., Napoli, G., Tariello, F., & Vanoli, G. P. (2024). Energy and cost analysis for crop production in a vertical farm. Applied Thermal Engineering, 239, Article 122129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2023.122129

Avgoustaki, D. D., Bartzanas, T., & Xydis, G. (2021). Minimising the energy footprint of indoor food production while maintaining a high growth rate: Introducing disruptive cultivation protocols. Food Control, 130, Article 108290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108290

Avgoustaki, D. D., & Xydis, G. (2021). Energy cost reduction by shifting electricity demand in indoor vertical farms with artificial lighting. Biosystems Engineering, 211, 219–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2021.09.006

Bao, Y., Leung, M. K., Poon, D., & Xiang, C. (2024). Integrating vertical farm into low-carbon high-rise building in high-density context: A design case study in Hong Kong. Journal of Building Engineering, 96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.110472

Barbosa, G. L., Almeida Gadelha, F. D., Kublik, N., Proctor, A., Reichelm, L., Weissinger, E., Wohlleb, G. M., & Halden, R. U. (2015). Comparison of and Land, Water, and Energy Requirements of Lettuce Grown Using Hydroponic vs. Conventional Agricultural Methods. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12(6), 6879–6891. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120606879

Beacham, A. M., Vickers, L. H., & Monaghan, J. M. (2019). Vertical farming: a summary of approaches to growing skywards. Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology, 94(3), 277–283. https://doi.org/10.1080/14620316.2019.1574214

Benke, K., & Tomkins, B. (2017). Future food-production systems: vertical farming and controlled-environment agriculture. Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy, 13(1), 13–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/15487733.2017.1394054

Blom, T., Jenkins, A., Pulselli, R. M., & van den Dobbelsteen, A. (2022). The embodied carbon emissions of lettuce production in vertical farming, greenhouse horticulture, and open-field farming in the Netherlands. Journal of Cleaner Production, 377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.134443

Blom, T., Jenkins, A., & van den Dobbelsteen, A. (2024). Synergetic urbanism: a theoretical exploration of a vertical farm as local heat source and flexible electricity user. Sustainable Cities and Society, 103, Article 105267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2024.105267

Bunge, A. C., Wood, A., Halloran, A., & Gordon, L. J. (2022). A systematic scoping review of the sustainability of vertical farming, plant-based alternatives, food delivery services and blockchain in food systems. Nature Food, 3(11), 933–941. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-022-00622-8

Butturini, M., & Marcelis, L. F. M. (2019). Vertical farming in Europe: Present status and outlook. Elsevier eBooks, 77–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816691-8.00004-2

Carotti, L., Pistillo, A., Zauli, I., Meneghello, D., Martin, M., Pennisi, G., Gianquinto, G., & Orsini, F. (2023). Improving water use efficiency in vertical farming: Effects of growing systems, far-red radiation and planting density on lettuce cultivation. Agricultural Water Management, 285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2023.108365

Carotti, L., Pistillo, A., Zauli, I., Pennisi, G., Martin, M., Gianquinto, G., & Orsini, F. (2024). Far-red radiation management for lettuce growth: Physiological and morphological features leading to energy optimization in vertical farming. Scientia Horticulturae, 334, Article 113264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2024.113264

Ciuta, F., Arghir, L. D., Tudor, C. A., & Lagunovschi-Luchian, V. (2021). Research on microgreens farming in vertical hydroponic system. Journal of Horticulture, Forestry and Biotechnology, 24(4), 27-34.

Cossu, M., Tiloca, M. T., Cossu, A., Deligios, P. A., Pala, T., & Ledda, L. (2023). Increasing the agricultural sustainability of closed agrivoltaic systems with the integration of vertical farming: A case study on baby-leaf lettuce. Applied Energy, 344, Article 121278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.121278

Cowan, N., White, S., Olszewska, J., Dobel, A., Sim, G., Eades, L. J., & Skiba, U. (2022). Integration of algae treatment with hydroponic crop waste to reduce impact of nutrient waste streams. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture and Environment, 1(3), 203–215. https://doi.org/10.1002/sae2.12025

de Carbonnel, M., Stormonth-Darling, J. M., Liu, W., Kuziak, D., & Jones, M. A. (2022). Realising the Environmental Potential of Vertical Farming Systems through Advances in Plant Photobiology. Biology, 11(6), 922. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11060922

Delorme, M., & Santini, A. (2022). Energy-efficient automated vertical farms. Omega, 109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.omega.2022.102611

Despommier, D. (2024). Vertical farming: a holistic approach towards food security. Frontiers in Science, 2. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsci.2024.1473141

Dhawi, F. (2023). The Role of Plant Growth-Promoting Microorganisms (PGPMs) and Their Feasibility in Hydroponics and Vertical Farming. Metabolites, 13(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo13020247

D’Ostuni, M., Zaffi, L., Appolloni, E., & Orsini, F. (2022). Understanding the complexities of Building-Integrated Agriculture. Can food shape the future built environment? Futures, 144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2022.103061

Drottberger, A., Zhang, Y., Yong, J. W. H., & Dubois, M. C. (2023). Urban farming with rooftop greenhouses: A systematic literature review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 188. Article 113884. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2023.113884

Dziumla, J., Guenther, E., Karthe, D., & Dijkstra-Silva, S. (2025). Sustainability assessment for novel approaches in the agri-food industry: The example of vertical farming. Journal of Cleaner Production, 495, Article 145036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2025.145036

Eigenbrod, C., & Gruda, N. (2015). Urban vegetable for food security in cities. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 35(2), 483–498. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-014-0273-y

Elkington, J. (2006). Governance for Sustainability. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 14(6), 522-529. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8683.2006.00527.x

Erekath, S., Seidlitz, H., Schreiner, M., & Dreyer, C. (2024). Food for future: Exploring cutting-edge technology and practices in vertical farm. Sustainable Cities and Society, 106, 105357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2024.105357

Ergun, O., Dasgan, H. Y., & Isik, O. (2020). Effects of microalgae Chlorella vulgaris on hydroponically grown lettuce. Acta Horticulturae, 1273, 169–175. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2020.1273.23

Fasciolo, B., Awouda, A., Bruno, G., & Lombardi, F. (2023). A smart aeroponic system for sustainable indoor farming. Procedia CIRP, 116, 636–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2023.02.107

Fernández-Cabanás, V. M., Pérez-Urrestarazu, L., Juárez, A., Kaufman, N. T., & Gross, J. A. (2020). Comparative analysis of horizontal and vertical decoupled aquaponic systems for basil production and effect of light supplementation by LED. Agronomy, 10(9). https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10091414

Ferreira, A. J. D., Guilherme, R., Ferreira, C. S. S., & Oliveira, M. F. L. (2018). Urban agriculture, a tool towards more resilient urban communities? Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health, 5, 93–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2018.06.004

Filatov, D. A., Vetchinnikov, A. A., Olonina, S. I., & Olonin, I. Y. (2022). Intermittent LED lighting helps reduce energy costs when growing microgreens on vertical controlled environment farms. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 979(1), Article 012096. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/979/1/012096

Fróna, D., Szenderák, J., & Harangi-Rákos, M. (2019). The challenge of feeding the world. Sustainability, 11(20), Article 5816. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11205816

Gargaro, M., Hastings, A., Murphy, R. J., & Harris, Z. M. (2024). A cradle-to-customer life cycle assessment case study of UK vertical farming. Journal of Cleaner Production, 470, Article 143324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.143324

Gillani, S. A., Abbasi, R., Martinez, P., & Ahmad, R. (2022). Comparison of Energy-use Efficiency for Lettuce Plantation under Nutrient Film Technique and Deep-Water Culture Hydroponic Systems. Procedia Computer Science, 217, 11–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2022.12.197

Gunapala, R., Gangahagedara, R., Wanasinghe, W. C. S., Samaraweera, A. U., Gamage, A., Rathnayaka, C., Hameed, Z., Abdel Baki, Z., Madhujith, T., & Merah, O. (2025). Urban agriculture: A strategic pathway to building resilience and ensuring sustainable food security in cities. Farming System, 3(3), Article 100150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.farsys.2025.100150

Gurung, L., Rawal, J. S., Puspa Rc, Joshi, G. R, & Mandal, A. (2024). Vertical Farming in Urban Agriculture: Opportunities, Challenges, and Future Directions. Big Data in Agriculture, 6(2), 89–95. https://doi.org/10.26480/bda.02.2024.89.95

Huo, S., Liu, J., Addy, M., Chen, P., Necas, D., Cheng, P., Li, K., Chai, H., Liu, Y., & Ruan, R. (2020). The influence of microalgae on vegetable production and nutrient removal in greenhouse hydroponics. Journal of Cleaner Production, 243, Article 118563. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118563

Jamil, U., Hickey, T., & Pearce, J. M. (2024). Solar energy modelling and proposed crops for different types of agrivoltaics systems. Energy, 304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2024.132074

Jin, W., Formiga Lopez, D., Heuvelink, E., & Marcelis, L. F. M. (2023). Light use efficiency of lettuce cultivation in vertical farms compared with greenhouse and field. Food and Energy Security, 12(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1002/fes3.391

Joensuu, K., Kotilainen, T., Räsänen, K., Rantanen, M., Usva, K., & Silvenius, F. (2024). Assessment of climate change impact and resource-use efficiency of lettuce production in vertical farming and greenhouse production in Finland: a case study. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-024-02343-5

Jürkenbeck, K., Heumann, A., & Spiller, A. (2019). Sustainability matters: Consumer acceptance of different vertical farming systems. Sustainability, 11(15), Article 4052. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11154052

Kabir, M. S. N., Reza, M. N., Chowdhury, M., Ali, M., Samsuzzaman, Ali, M. R., Lee, K. Y., & Chung, S. O. (2023). Technological Trends and Engineering Issues on Vertical Farms: A Review. Horticulturae, 9(11), Article 1229. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9111229

Kaiser, E., Kusuma, P., Vialet-Chabrand, S., Folta, K. M., Liu, Y., Poorter, H., Woning, N., Shrestha, S., Ciarreta, A., VanBrenk, J., Karpe, M., Ji, Y., David, S., Zepeda, C., Zhu, X., Huntenburg, K., Verdonk, J. C., Woltering, E., Gauthier, P. P., … Marcelis, L. F. (2024). Vertical farming goes dynamic: optimizing resource use efficiency, product quality, and energy costs. Frontiers in Plant Sciences, 2. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsci.2024.1411259

Kalantari, F., Tahir, O. M., Joni, R. A., & Fatemi, E. (2018). Opportunities and challenges in sustainability of vertical farming: A review. Journal of Landscape Ecology, 11(1), 35–60. https://doi.org/10.1515/jlecol-2017-0016

Kang, L., Zhang, Y., Kacira, M., & van Hooff, T. (2024). CFD simulation of air distributions in a small multi-layer vertical farm: Impact of computational and physical parameters. Biosystems Engineering, 243, 148–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2024.05.004

Khan, F. A. (2018). A review on hydroponic greenhouse cultivation for sustainable agriculture. International Journal of Agriculture Environment and Food Sciences, 2(2), 59–66. https://doi.org/10.31015/jaefs.18010

Kobayashi, Y., Kotilainen, T., Carmona-García, G., Leip, A., & Tuomisto, H. L. (2022). Vertical farming: A trade-off between land area need for crops and for renewable energy production. Journal of Cleaner Production, 379, Article 134507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.134507

Kouloumprouka, A., Monaghan, J. M., Bromley, J. R., & Vickers, L. H. (2024). Opportunities and challenges for strawberry cultivation in urban food production systems. Plants People Planet, 6(3), 611-621. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp3.10475

Kumar, S., Singh, M., Yadav, K. K., & Singh, P. K. (2021). Opportunities and constraints in hydroponic crop production systems: A review. Environment Conservation Journal, 22(3), 401–408. https://doi.org/10.36953/ecj.2021.22346

Lee, J., Lim, E., Byun, N., & Shon, D. (2024). Eco-Friendly Technology Derivation and Planning for Rooftop Greenhouse Smart Farm. Buildings, 14(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14020398

Lee, S., & Lee, J. (2015). Beneficial bacteria and fungi in hydroponic systems: Types and characteristics of hydroponic food production methods. Scientia Horticulturae, 195, 206–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2015.09.011

Liu, J., Oita, A., Hayashi, K., & Matsubae, K. (2022). Sustainability of Vertical Farming in Comparison with Conventional Farming: A Case Study in Miyagi Prefecture, Japan, on Nitrogen and Phosphorus Footprint. Sustainability, 14(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/su14021042

Ljumović, K., Betterle, N., Baietta, A., & Ballottari, M. (2024). Valorization of wastewater from industrial hydroponic cultivations using the microalgal species Chlorella vulgaris. Algal Research, 81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2024.103570

Lubna, F. A., Lewus, D. C., Shelford, T. J., & Both, A. J. (2022). What You May Not Realize about Vertical Farming. Horticulturae, 8(4), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8040322

Majid, M., Khan, J. N., Ahmad Shah, Q. M., Masoodi, K. Z., Afroza, B., & Parvaze, S. (2021). Evaluation of hydroponic systems for the cultivation of Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L., var. Longifolia) and comparison with protected soil-based cultivation. Agricultural Water Management, 245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2020.106572

Martin, M., Elnour, M., & Siñol, A. C. (2023). Environmental life cycle assessment of a large-scale commercial vertical farm. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 40, 182–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2023.06.020

Mei, C., Zhou, D., Chretien, R. L., Turner, A., Hou, G., Evans, M. R., & Lowman, S. (2023). A Potential Application of Pseudomonas psychrotolerans IALR632 for Lettuce Growth Promotion in Hydroponics. Microorganisms, 11(2), 376. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11020376

Mir, M. S., Naikoo, N. B., Kanth, R., & Bhat, M. A. (2022). Vertical farming: The future of agriculture: A review. The Pharma Innovation Journal, 11(2), 1175-1195.

Modu, F., Adam, A., Aliyu, F., Mabu, A., & Musa, M. (2020). A survey of smart hydroponic systems. Advances in Science Technology and Engineering Systems, 5(1), 233–248. https://doi.org/10.25046/aj050130

Nájera, C., Gallegos-Cedillo, V. M., Ros, M., & Pascual, J. A. (2022). LED Lighting in Vertical Farming Systems Enhances Bioactive Compounds and Productivity of Vegetables Crops. Biology and Life Sciences Forum, 16(24). https://doi.org/10.3390/iecho2022-12514

Naqvi, S. M. Z. A., Saleem, S. R., Tahir, M. N., Hussain, S., Ul Haq, S. I., Awais, M., & Qamar, S. (2022). Vertical Farming—Current Practices and Its Future. Environmental Sciences Proceedings, 23(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/environsciproc2022023004

Naranjani, B., Najafianashrafi, Z., Pascual, C., Agulto, I., & Chuang, P. A. (2022). Computational analysis of the environment in an indoor vertical farming system. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 186, Article 122460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2021.122460

Nogueira, E., Gomes, S., & Lopes, J. M. (2023). Triple Bottom Line, Sustainability, and Economic Development: What Binds Them Together? A Bibliometric Approach. Sustainability, 15(8), 6706. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15086706

Ng, H. T., Tham, Z. K., Rahim, N. A. A., Rohim, A. W., Looi, W. W., & Ahmad, N. S. (2023). IoT-enabled system for monitoring and controlling vertical farming operations. International Journal of Reconfigurable and Embedded Systems, 12(3), 453–461. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijres.v12.i3.pp453-461

Oh, S., & Lu, C. (2023). Vertical farming - smart urban agriculture for enhancing resilience and sustainability in food security. Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology, 98(2), 133–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/14620316.2022.2141666

Olvera-Gonzalez, E., Escalante-Garcia, N., Myers, D., Ampim, P., Obeng, E., Alaniz-Lumbreras, D., & Castaño, V. (2021). Pulsed led-lighting as an alternative energy savings technique for vertical farms and plant factories. Energies, 14(6). https://doi.org/10.3390/en14061603

Orsini, F., Pennisi, G., Zulfiqar, F., & Gianquinto, G. (2020). Sustainable use of resources in plant factories with artificial lighting (PFALs). European Journal of Horticultural Science, 85(5), 297–309. https://doi.org/10.17660/eJHS.2020/85.5.1

Page, M. J., Moher, D., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J. M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Loder, E. W., Mayo-Wilson, E., McDonald, S., … McKenzie, J. E. (2021). PRISMA 2020 explanation and elaboration: updated guidance and exemplars for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, n160. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n160

Parkes, M. G., Azevedo, D. L., Cavallo, A. C., Domingos, T., & Teixeira, R. F. M. (2023). Life cycle assessment of microgreen production: effects of indoor vertical farm management on yield and environmental performance. Scientific Reports, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-38325-0

Pereira, J., & Gomes, M. G. (2025). Lighting strategies in vertical urban farming for enhancement of plant productivity and energy consumption. Applied Energy, 377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.124669

Pinstrup-Andersen, P. (2018). Is it time to take vertical indoor farming seriously? Global Food Security, 17, 233–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.09.002

Plocek, G., Rueda Kunz, D., & Simpson, C. (2024). Impacts of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens and Trichoderma spp. on Pac Choi (Brassica rapa var. chinensis) grown in different hydroponic systems. Frontiers in Plant Science, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2024.1438038

Putri, R. E., Oktavionry, P. A., Arlius, F., Putri, I., & Hasan, A. (2023). Use of Tower System in Vertical Farming Technique. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1182(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1182/1/012005

Rajan, P., Lada, R. R., & MacDonald, M. T. (2019). Advancement in Indoor Vertical Farming for Microgreen Production. American Journal of Plant Sciences, 10(08), 1397–1408. https://doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2019.108100

Rao, G., Kumar, A., Singh, R. N., & Singh, T. P. (2020). Water Level Monitoring System with Vertical Farming using IoT. International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering, 9(7), 550–553. https://doi.org/10.35940/ijitee.g5475.059720

Rao, N., Patil, S., Singh, C., Roy, P., Pryor, C., Poonacha, P., & Genes, M. (2022). Cultivating sustainable and healthy cities: A systematic literature review of the outcomes of urban and peri-urban agriculture. Sustainable Cities and Society, 85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2022.104063

Rathor, A. S., Choudhury, S., Sharma, A., Nautiyal, P., & Shah, G. (2024). Empowering vertical farming through IoT and AI-Driven technologies: A comprehensive review. Heliyon, 10(15), Article e34998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e34998

Regmi, A., Rueda-Kunz, D., Liu, H., Trevino, J., Kathi, S., & Simpson, C. (2024). Comparing resource use efficiencies in hydroponic and aeroponic production systems. Technology in Horticulture, 4, Article number: e005.

Reidsma, P., Accatino, F., Appel, F., Gavrilescu, C., Krupin, V., Manevska Tasevska, G., Meuwissen, M. P. M., Peneva, M., Severini, S., Soriano, B., Urquhart, J., Zawalińska, K., Zinnanti, C., & Paas, W. (2023). Alternative systems and strategies to improve future sustainability and resilience of farming systems across Europe: from adaptation to transformation. Land Use Policy, 134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2023.106881

Renganathan, P., Puente, E. O. R., Sukhanova, N. V., and Gaysina, L. A. (2024). Hydroponics with Microalgae and Cyanobacteria: Emerging Trends and Opportunities in Modern Agriculture. BioTech, 13(3), 27. https://doi.org/10.3390/biotech13030027

Royston, R. M., & Pavithra, M. P (2018). Vertical farming: a concept. International Journal of Engineering and Techniques, 4(3), 500-506.

Rufí-Salís, M., Petit-Boix, A., Villalba, G., Sanjuan-Delmás, D., Parada, F., Ercilla-Montserrat, M., Arcas-Pilz, V., Muñoz-Liesa, J., Rieradevall, J., & Gabarrell, X. (2020). Recirculating water and nutrients in urban agriculture: An opportunity towards environmental sustainability and water use efficiency? Journal of Cleaner Production, 261, 121213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121213

Sandison, F., Yeluripati, J., & Stewart, D. (2023). Does green vertical farming offer a sustainable alternative to conventional methods of production?: A case study from Scotland. Food and Energy Security, 12(2), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1002/fes3.438

Sena, S., Kumari, S., Kumar, V., & Husen, A. (2024). Light emitting diode (LED) lights for the improvement of plant performance and production: A comprehensive review. Current Research in Biotechnology, 7, Article 100184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crbiot.2024.100184

Shao, Y., Zhou, Z., Chen, H., Zhang, F., Cui, Y., & Zhou, Z. (2022). The potential of urban family vertical farming: A pilot study of Shanghai. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 34, 586–599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2022.10.011

Sharathkumar, M., Heuvelink, E., & Marcelis, L. F. (2020). Vertical Farming: Moving from Genetic to Environmental Modification. Trends in Plant Science, 25(8), 724-727 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2020.05.012

Shomefun, T. E., Awosope, C. O. A., & Ebenezer, O. D. (2018). Microcontroller-based vertical farming automation system. International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering, 8(4), 2046–2053. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijece.v8i4.pp2046-2053

Singh, D., Basu, C., Meinhardt-Wollweber, M., & Roth, B. (2015). LEDs for energy efficient greenhouse lighting. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 49, 139–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.117

Sipos, L., Balázs, L., Székely, G., Jung, A., Sárosi, S., Radácsi, P., & Csambalik, L. (2021). Optimization of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) production in LED light environments – a review. Scientia Horticulturae, 289, Article 110486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2021.110486

Siregar, R. R. A., Seminar, K. B., Wahjuni, S., & Santosa, E. (2022). Vertical Farming Perspectives in Support of Precision Agriculture Using Artificial Intelligence: A Review. Computers, 11(9),135. https://doi.org/10.3390/computers11090135

Skarżyński, K., & Wiśniewski, A. (2024). The reflections on energy costs and efficacy problems of modern LED lamps. Energy Reports, 12, 4926–4937. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2024.10.038

Song, S., Hou, Y., Lim, R. B., Gaw, L. Y. F., Richards, D. R., & Tan, H. T. (2022). Comparison of vegetable production, resource-use efficiency and environmental performance of high-technology and conventional farming systems for urban agriculture in the tropical city of Singapore. The Science of the Total Environment, 807, 150621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150621

Sorooshian, S. (2024). The sustainable development goals of the United Nations: A comparative midterm research review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 453, 142272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.142272

Sousa, R. de, Bragança, L., da Silva, M. V., & Oliveira, R. S. (2024). Challenges and Solutions for Sustainable Food Systems: The Potential of Home Hydroponics. Sustainability, 16(2), 817. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16020817

Specht, K., Siebert, R., & Thomaier, S. (2016). Perception and acceptance of agricultural production in and on urban buildings (ZFarming): a qualitative study from Berlin, Germany. Agriculture and Human Values, 33(4), 753–769. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-015-9658-z

Stanghellini, C., & Katzin, D. (2024). The dark side of lighting: A critical analysis of vertical farms’ environmental impact. Journal of Cleaner Production, 458, Article 142359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.142359

Świąder, K., Čermak, D., Gajewska, D., Najman, K., Piotrowska, A., & Kostyra, E. (2023). Opportunities and constraints for creating edible cities and accessing wholesome functional foods in a sustainable way. Sustainability, 15(10), Article 8406. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15108406

Tablada, A., Kosorić, V., Huang, H., Lau, S. S., & Shabunko, V. (2020). Architectural quality of the productive façades integrating photovoltaic and vertical farming systems: Survey among experts in Singapore. Frontiers of Architectural Research, 9(2), 301–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.12.005

Toku, A., Twumasi Amoah, S., & Nyabanyi N-yanbini, N. (2024). Exploring the potentials of urban crop farming and the question of environmental sustainability. City and Environment Interactions, 24, Article 100167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cacint.2024.100167

Touliatos, D., Dodd, I. C., & Mcainsh, M. (2016). Vertical farming increases lettuce yield per unit area compared to conventional horizontal hydroponics. Food and Energy Security, 5(3), 184–191. https://doi.org/10.1002/fes3.83

United Nations. (1987). Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-common-future.pdf

Van Eck, N. J., & Waltman, L. (2023). VOSviewer (versión 1.6.20) [Software]. Centre for Science and Technology Studies, Leiden University. https://www.vosviewer.com/

Van Gerrewey, T., Boon, N., & Geelen, D. (2022). Vertical farming: The only way is up? Agronomy, 12(1), 2. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12010002

Vatistas, C., Avgoustaki, D. D., & Bartzanas, T. (2022). A Systematic Literature Review on Controlled-Environment Agriculture: How Vertical Farms and Greenhouses Can Influence the Sustainability and Footprint of Urban Microclimate with Local Food Production. Atmosphere, 13(8). https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13081258

Velazquez-Gonzalez, R. S., Garcia-Garcia, A. L., Ventura-Zapata, E., Barceinas-Sanchez, J. D. O., & Sosa-Savedra, J. C. (2022). A Review on Hydroponics and the Technologies Associated for Medium-and Small-Scale Operations. Agriculture, 12(5). https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12050646

Wicharuck, S., Khongdee, N., Pripanakul, T., Whangchai, N., Pimpimol, T., & Chaichana, C. (2023). Vertical farming: A potential farming practice for lettuce production. Chilean Journal of Agricultural Research, 83(3), 248–259. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-58392023000300248

Wong, C. E., Teo, Z. W. N., Shen, L., & Yu, H. (2020). Seeing the lights for leafy greens in indoor vertical farming. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 106, 48–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.09.031

Wood, J., Wong, C., & Paturi, S. (2020). Vertical Farming: An Assessment of Singapore City. ETropic, 19(2), 228–248. https://doi.org/10.25120/ETROPIC.19.2.2020.3745

Wu, J., Cheng, Y. W., Lin, G., & Xu, D. (2025). Toward sustainable agriculture: The design of environmentally friendly, economical, and modular vertical farming systems. Engineering, 55, 229-240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2025.07.043

Yuan, G. N., Marquez, G. P. B., Deng, H., Iu, A., Fabella, M., Salonga, R. B., Ashardiono, F., & Cartagena, J. A. (2022). A review on urban agriculture: technology, socio-economy, and policy. Heliyon, 8(11). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11583

Zhu, X., and Marcelis, L. (2023). Vertical farming for crop production. Modern Agriculture, 1(1), 13–15. https://doi.org/10.1002/moda.4