RESEARCH ARTICLE          

Biodegradable trays made from Poraqueiba sericea Tulasne seed starch and Zea mays cob flour

Alexandra Huertas1 ; Presly Barrios1 ; María de Fátima Arevalo-Oliva2 ; Any Córdova-Chang2 ; Beetthssy Z. Hurtado-Soria3 ; Eudes Villanueva3 ; José González-Cabeza4 ; Gilbert Rodríguez5 ; Elza Aguirre5 *

1 Escuela Profesional de Ingeniería Agroindustrial, Universidad Nacional del Santa, Av. Universitaria s/n, Nuevo Chimbote, 02712, Ancash, Perú.

2 Laboratorio de Microbiología y Toxicología de Productos Agroindustriales, Universidad Nacional del Santa, Av. Universitaria S/N, Nuevo Chimbote, Perú.

3  Departamento Académico de Ingeniería en Industrias Alimentarias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Tayacaja Daniel Hernández Morillo (UNAT), Jr. Bolognesi Nro. 418, Pampas, 09156 Huancavelica, Perú.

4 Laboratorio de Microbiología Molecular y Biotecnología, Universidad Privada Antenor Orrego, Av. América Sur 3145, Trujillo, 13008 Trujillo, Perú.

5 Instituto de Investigación Tecnológica Agroindustrial, Universidad Nacional del Santa Av. Universitaria s/n, Nuevo Chimbote, 02712, Ancash, Perú.

* Corresponding author: eaguirre@uns.edu.pe (E. Aguirre).

Received: 18 May 2024. Accepted: 29 November 2024. Published: 16 December 2024.

Abstract

The environmental impact of polystyrene and other petrochemical packaging has increased interest in researching biodegradable materials as alternatives. The main objective of this research was to develop biodegradable trays from five formulations of Poraqueiba sericea Tulasne (known as umari) seed starch and corncob meal. The trays were produced using the thermoforming process applying temperatures of 135 °C and 145 °C for each side of the tray for a time of 6.5 min. Physical analysis of the trays showed that the increase in the percentage of corncob flour caused changes in color (L*: 68.69 - 64.94), thickness (2.20 - 3.17 mm), density (0.251 - 0.414 g/cm3), moisture (3.85% - 5.68%), water absorption (21.86% - 39.05%), volatile solids (95.33% - 98.31%). Regarding mechanical properties, it was also evidenced the increase in hardness (67.70 - 90.97 N), fracturability (1.43 and 3.19 mm), tension (2.84 to 3.43 MPa) and elongation (1.54% to 2.04%). The formulation of 87.5% umari seed starch and 12.5% corncob flour presented more favorable physical and mechanical properties. Further analysis of this formulation was performed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), which identified bands characteristic of starch (1055 and 1027 cm-1); X-ray diffraction (XRD), which revealed characteristic peaks (2θ = 16.83° and 2θ = 22.69°) associated with cellulose crystallinity in the biodegradable tray; and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), which revealed cellulosic voids with irregular distribution due to the addition of fibers. Future research should examine the potential applications of these biodegradable trays for the packaging of raw materials in the food industry.

Keywords: biodegradable tray; corncob; umari seed; starch; fiber.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.17268/sci.agropecu.2025.002

Cite this article:

Huertas, A., Barrios, P., Arevalo-Oliva, M de F., Córdova-Chang, A., Hurtado-Soria, B. Z., Villanueva, E., González-Cabeza, J., Rodríguez, G., & Aguirre, E. (2025). Biodegradable trays made from Poraqueiba sericea Tulasne seed starch and Zea mays cob flour. Scientia Agropecuaria, 16(1), 17-26.

1. Introduction

The effects related to the use of plastics represent a growing environmental threat; annually, it is esti­mated that the marine environment is contami­nated with 0.7 to 0.8 million tons of plastic waste that alters the habitat of aquatic species (Meijer et al., 2021). Plastics break down into microplastics that contaminate water (ocean and riverbanks) and en­ter the food chain (Zhu et al., 2022). On the other hand, the incineration of this plastic waste causes air pollution which produces toxic compounds harmful to the respiratory system of living beings (Aguilar et al., 2018; Pandey et al., 2023). To minimize their negative ecological impact, several countries have developed legislation for the controlled use of pe­troleum-derived plastics, while promoting the use of biopolymers (Moshood et al., 2022). In this sense, multiple research projects are being carried out to replace the use of petroleum-derived polymers in the production of packaging; these substitutes are of greater interest when they are derived from raw material residues that are mostly obtained from ag­ribusiness (Tapia-Blácido et al., 2021). Biodegrada­ble plastics have a much shorter half-life than con­ventional plastics after being used, since they have the property of decomposing due to the natural ef­fect of temperature, humidity, heat, microorgan­isms, carbon dioxide, among others (Emadian et al., 2017; El Menofy & Khattab, 2023; Cheng et al., 2024). The global bioplastics market will grow at more than 15% per year; however, bioplastics still account for less than 1% of total plastics production (Ediyilyam et al., 2021). Starch is considered the ma­terial par excellence for the development of biode­gradable materials, as it has a low acquisition cost and suitable chemical properties (Onyeaka et al., 2022). Another interesting material for the develop­ment of trays is found in natural fibers whose chem­ical, physical and mechanical properties give them significant improvements with respect to shape, texture, length, strength and elasticity to the prod­uct (Li et al., 2020). Several research have consid­ered the integration of natural fibers and proteins to improve stiffness, water absorption and elonga­tion, increasing of biodegradability of trays (Bergel et al., 2017; Zwawi, 2021). The production of biode­gradable trays uses the thermoforming technique, which is a manufacturing process in which a plastic or composite mixture is heated to make it mallea­ble, molding with pressure and heat, and then cooled to solidify it (Aguirre et al., 2023).

The umari (Poraqueiba sericea Tulasne), belongs to the Icacinaceae family, and is a very aromatic edible fruit that is composed of a pulp composed in 7.98 ± 0.08 % of proteins; 25.25 ± 0.28% of lipids and 57.22% of total carbohydrates, being widely con­sumed by the Amazonian population (Peru and Brazil), mainly in its fresh form (Freitas et al., 2024; Berto et al., 2015; Silva, 1997). The consumption of umari fruit pulp generates seed residues of approx­imately 74% with respect to the fruit (Ordoñéz et al., 2001). These seeds contain a high starch content (approximately 98%), which makes it attractive for the development of new products, less than 5% of this seed consists of a mixture of cellulose, proteins, hemicellulose and remaining starch (Ordoñéz et al., 2001). Corn is a crop of high production and de­mand worldwide, of the total production 2023/2024, the majority are in countries such as: USA (32%), China (24%) and Brazil (10%); while in Peru 1, 575, 000 Metric Tons were produced, which represents 0.1% of world production (USDA, 2024). The corn cob that is discarded by farmers at the time of grain extraction represents about 20% by weight of the stubble, presenting itself as a residual material of low utility; on the other hand, corn cob presents abundant lignocellulosic biomass pro­duced in the corn processing industry and contains a considerable amount of hemicellulose, which constitutes more than one third of its dry weight (Bovo et al., 2022; Ismail et al., 2022). Therefore, since umari seeds and corn cobs with high starch, fiber and cellulose content are waste materials, this work developed biodegradable trays from these waste raw materials, using the thermoforming pro­cess. Consequently, the chemical, physical and me­chanical characteristics of the developed biode­gradable trays were evaluated to select and pro­pose a formulation with promising characteristics.

2. Methodology

2.1. Raw materials and reagents

Umari fruits (50 kg), obtained from the department of Loreto, Maynas province and Fernando Lores district (4°00′11″S 73°09′37″W), were used. The shelled coronta cobs (10 kg) were obtained from hard yellow corn (Zea mays L. var. Indurata), ob­tained from the department of Ancash, Casma province, San Rafael Valley district (9°26'65"S 78°12'12"W). Magnesium stearate, glycerol and guar gum (Merck Laboratory, Germany) were used to make biodegradable trays. The raw materials were processed at the Instituto de Investigación Tecnológica Agroindustrial (IITA) of the Universidad Nacional del Santa (UNS), Chimbote, Ancash, Peru.

2.2. Methodology for obtaining starch from umari seeds and corn cob flour

The extraction of starch from umari seeds is pre­sented in Figure 1a. After selection and cleaning, the seeds were manually opened on the lateral side with a stainless-steel knife; subsequently, a bleach­ing process was carried out with a bisulfite solution (0.75%), with a raw material / bisulfite solution ratio of 2/1 (w/v). The raw material was crushed in the bisulfite solution and the liquid rest in which the starch is found was filtered, by means of a gravity sedimentation process during 24 h at refrigeration temperature (4 °C), the starch was separated from the liquid rest, to guarantee an adequate separa­tion, four washes were performed and finally the starch was dried on trays in an industrial rotary oven (NOVA, MAX-1000, Peru) at a temperature of 40 °C for 24 hours.

Figure 1. Process for obtaining (a) umari seed starch, (b) corn cob flour and (c) biodegradable trays.

The dry starch was ground in a hammer mill (TORRH, MDNT-60XL, Peru) and finally sieved through a 100-mesh sieve (CORMAC, ASTM stand­ard, Peru). The methodology for obtaining corn cob flour is presented in Figure 1b, basically consisted of receiving and cleaning of foreign matter; the cobs were then taken to tray drying (TORRH, SBT-10x10, Peru) for 4 hours at a temperature of 80 °C. The dried cobs were subjected to the milling process in the hammer mill (RETSCH, ZM 200, Peru). The dried cobs were subjected to the grinding process in the hammer mill (RETSCH, ZM 200, Peru). Finally, the corn cob flour was sieved on an 80-mesh sieve.

2.3. Production of biodegradable trays

We estimated different formulations of umari seed and corn cob starch for the preparation of trays as detailed in Table 1. The formulations and inputs (6% magnesium stereate, 7% glycerol and 1% guar gum) were weighed on the analytical balance (Precisa Gravimetrics AG., LX320A, USA), the formulations and inputs were mixed with a hand mixer (IMACO, HM 505, Peru), until a homogeneous mass was achieved.

The thermoforming process (Figure 1c) used approximately 93 g of homogeneous dough to place it in a thermopress (Reles, MS3 Digital, Peru) at a temperature of 145 °C (bottom plate) and 135 °C (bottom plate) for a tray forming time of 6.5 min. The formed trays were cooled for a time of 24 h, room temperature (25 °C), relative humidity of 60% and stored in properly heat-sealed high-den­sity polypropylene bags (Retail, MSLL 300, Peru)

Table 1

Formulations for the production of biodegradable trays from umari seed starch and corn cob flour

2.4. Chemical characterization of raw materials

The moisture percentage was determined using the oven (POL-EKO-Aparatura, SLW 115STD, USA), ac­cording to AOAC 931.04 (JAOAC, 1931). Fat deter­mination was carried out according to AOAC method. 920.39 (AOAC, 2005b). Ash was deter­mined using the muffle (Thermolyne, 347034984, USA), at 600 °C for 2 hours, according to AOAC 923.03 (AOAC, 1997). Crude fiber was determined according to AOAC method. 962.09 (AOAC, 2005b). Protein content was determined using AOAC method. 920.87 (AOAC, 2005a). The carbo­hydrate content was determined by difference: % carbohydrate = 100% - % moisture - % ash - % protein - % fat - % fiber.

2.5. Characterization of biodegradable trays

The color attributes of the trays were assessed uti­lizing a color meter (Hunterlab, MiniScan XE147, USA), based on the CIElab scale which comprises L* for lightness, a* for redness/greenness, and b* for yellowness/blueness. The total color deviation () was determined considering the white background values (L* = 93.49, a* = 0.77 and b* = 1.40). For each analysis the area of each sample was 4 x 3 cm, in triplicate. The thickness of the trays was measured with a hand-held micrometer (Mitutoyo, model 1402, Peru) capable of measuring within the range of 0 to 150 millimeters. The bulk density (g/cm3) of the trays was calculated following the approach outlined by Aguirre et al. (2023). The moisture content of the trays was assessed using the oven-drying tech­nique, where 5 grams of crushed tray material was subjected to 105 °C heat for 3 hours. The water ab­sorption capacity was assessed following the proce­dure outlined in ABNT NBR NM ISO 535 (2014). Volatile solids were measured utilizing method 2540G (Standard Method, 1997). Tensile and elon­gation tests were conducted in accordance with the ASTM D828 method as described by Mello & Mali (2014) using a texture analyzer (TA. HD Plus; Stable Micro System, Surrey, UK). Hardness and fractura­bility tests are conducted using the HDP/FSR holder positioned at the bottom of the texture analyzer. The penetration speed is set at 1 m/s, and a spher­ical probe P/0.5S with a deformation distance of 15 mm is employed.

2.6. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)

Molecular vibrations of the chemical compounds within the trays were examined utilizing an FTIR in­strument (Thermo Scientific, Nicolet™ iS20, USA) paired with a single reflection attenuated total re­flectance (ATR) accessory. The assessments were conducted within the mid-infrared spectrum, rang­ing from 4000 to 500 cm-1, with a resolution of 4 cm-1.

2.7. X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)

XRD analyses were conducted employing a diffrac­tometer (Bruker, D8 Advance, USA) at ambient temperature (T = 25 °C), applying a voltage of 30 kV and intensity of 10 mA. The instrument emitted Kα copper radiation through a deflection window featuring a 0.06 mm slit positioned in the trajectory of the incident beam, with a wavelength of λ=1.54060 Å. The diffraction pattern was obtained between 2θ = 10º - 60º, with a ramp rate of 1◦/min.

2.8. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

Morphological analyses of the trays were per­formed on a SEM (Tescan, VEGA-3 LMU, Czech Re­public) equipped with a gold coating system SPI 11430-AB (Tescan, USA). The components of the trays were fixed with double-sided adhesive tape to bronze stubs for cross-sectional observation. A thin layer of gold (40-50 nm) was applied to the sur­faces. All samples were inspected at an accelerating voltage of 20 kV, following the methodology de­scribed by Cruz-Tirado et al. (2019), within an an­gular range of 5-60° on a 2θ scale with a step size of 0.02°.

2.9. Statistical analysis

The Statgraphics Plus v. 4 package (Manugistics Inc., USA) was used, employing a Simplex-Lattice mixture design. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed at 95% confidence level, for multiple comparison of the prepared tray formulations, Tukey's test was performed (p < 0.05).

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Raw material characterization

Table 2 displays the chemical composition of corn cob flour and umari seed starch. The raw materials exhibited notable distinctions in their chemical makeup (p < 0.05). Approximately, 87% of corn cob flour presented carbohydrates and fibers as main components, this flour is constituted by 33% to 43% of cellulose, 26% to 36% of hemicellulose and 17% to 21% of lignin (Bhatia et al., 2020; Gandam et al., 2022). Regarding moisture in flour and starch, the content varies according to the drying time prior to milling. Kumar et al. (2021) performed kinetics and modeling of corn cob drying, indicating that increasing the drying temperature caused a reduction in drying time. Umari starch presented a purity of 97.62%, similar to the 98.95% presented by Ordoñéz et al. (2001), on a dry basis.

Table 2

Proximal chemical composition of corn cob flour and umari seed starch dried (g/100 g)

Different Letters between samples present significant difference (p < 0.05).

3.2. Characterization of biodegradable trays

3.2.1. Physical properties

Color parameters (L*, a* and b*) varied significantly with the addition of corn cob flour. The brightness (L*) of the trays was reduced with the addition of fibre in the formulations, which in turn caused an increase in the parameters a*, b* causing a reddish hue (a+) and a more accentuated yellowish hue (b+) (Figure 2), and also increased the total colour differential ΔE (Table 3). This behavior has been re­ported by several authors for fiber-reinforced starch trays (Vercelheze et al., 2013; Mello & Mali, 2014; Aguirre et al., 2023). Furthermore, several investi­gations linked the Maillard reaction to the darken­ing of the trays due to the resulting proteincarbo­hydrate reaction during thermoforming (Cruz-Tirado et al., 2017; Machado et al., 2017).

Table 4 shows the physical analysis of the trays pre­pared. It was determined that the thickness de­creased as the percentage of fiber in the mixture increased, interfered in the foaming and starch swelling processes, which prevented a homogene­ous expansion. A significant difference was found between treatments (p < 0.05).

The thickness of the trays was lower than those pre­sented by Machado et al. (2017) and Ferreira et al. (2020) who found 3.30 - 4.60 mm and 3.50 - 4.21 mm, respectively. The density values of treatments T2, T4 and T5 decreased significantly compared to the control tray (only umari seed starch), this indi­cated that the density of starch foams decreases with the addition of fibers; On the other hand, the density values presented were higher than those re­ported by Bergel et al. (2018) and Machado et al. (2020) who used potato starch, cassava starch and peanut skin, respectively. The moisture content of the trays decreased significantly (p < 0.05), this is attributed to the hydrophobic characteristics of the fiber, and its percentage increase in the treatments, decreasing the affinity of the trays for moisture. Cruz-Tirado et al. (2019) used elaborated biode­gradable trays using formulations with the addition of arracacha, oca and sweet potato fiber, whose re­sults were superior in moisture (11.79%, 11.97% and 11.87%, respectively). The water absorption capacity decreased as the formulations presented higher corn cob flour addition, trend from 42.325% to 21.863%, Vercelheze et al. (2012) and Kaisangsri et al. (2014) observed that increasing the fiber concen­tration decreased the water absorption capacity in starch-based foams, which can be explained by the chemical nature of cellulose, which is partially insol­uble in water. Proteins (amino acids) influence water absorption capacity (Días & Acuña, 2022).

Table 3

Average color parameters L*, a*, b*, and color difference (ΔE*) of biodegradable trays

Different Letters between formulations present significant difference (p < 0.05).

Table 4

Physical properties of biodegradable trays made of corn cob flour and umari seed starch

Different letters between formulations present significant difference (p < 0.05).

Figure 2. Biodegradable trays made from umari starch seeds (A) and corn cob flour (B) in different formulations. Control: umari seed starch only, T1: 85%A+15%B, T2:90%A+10%B, T3: 86.25%A+13.75%B, T4: 88.75%A+11.25%B and T5: 87.50%A+12.50%B.

Table 5

Mechanical properties of biodegradable trays made of corn cob flour and umari seed starch

Different letters between formulations present significant difference (p < 0.05).

Volatile solids exceeded and complied with the minimum content of 50% volatile solids specified in NTP 900.080, the values presented in Table 4 exceeded those presented by Aguirre et al. (2023), who formulated trays with cassava starch and corn husk flour (65.34 - 74.76% volatile solids), where the 2540G (Standard Method) was also used.

3.2.2. Mechanical properties

The mechanical properties are presented in Table 5, the tensile strength of the trays did not present significant difference (p < 0.05); however, these val­ues were higher than those obtained by Cruz-Tirado et al. (2019) (1.32 MPa) and lower than those of Oliveira et al (2018) (6.1 - 11.5 MPa), from these results we can infer that the addition of fiber > 11.25%, generates a reduction in tensile strength; this was probably caused by agglomeration, break­ing of starch chains, affecting the expansion capac­ity during the thermoforming process (Cruz-Tirado et al., 2019). The elongation of the trays is in a range of 1.54 to 2.04%, these values do not exceed the control treatment due to the decrease in the per­centage of starch, which led to a decrease in amylose and the interaction of fibers agglomerating in the matrix, resulting in less elastic trays (Cruz, 2021); however, the values obtained in the present study were higher than those obtained by Cabanillas et al. (2019) (1.16% to 1.38%) and Cruz-Tirado et al. (2019) (arracacha: 1.13%, oca: 1.10%, sweet potato: 1.03%). The hardness values present the T5 formulation with the highest average values, surpassing the control treatment by approximately 10 N. The fracturability of the biodegradable trays varies between 1.43 to 3.19 mm, these values were lower than desired compared to the 5.54 mm pol­ystyrene trays (Cabanillas et al., 2019). The addition of fiber (> 10%) caused a decrease in the fractura­bility distance, since, its incorporation reduces water absorption (Cruz, 2021), according to Lawton et al. (1999), the fiber content should be low, since in­creasing the fiber content in the mixture will lead to a more heterogeneous starch mass, resulting in a product with lower mechanical strength. According to the analyses performed we observed that the T5 formulation obtained the best mechanical properties.

3.2.3. Molecular vibration

The FTIR examination revealed the molecular vibrations of functional groups found in umari seed starch, corn cob flour, and additives, as depicted in Figure 3. The analysis was conducted under T5 (optimal) conditions and the control treatment. Within the spectrum, a band spanning 3200 - 3500 cm-1 was detected, attributed to the O-H stretching within hydrogen bonds of water molecules. Additionally, a band near 1645 cm-1 was observed, indicating O-H bending of water molecules, suggesting interaction with other components in the mixture (Marengo et al., 2013; Ferreira et al., 2020). The band located between 2800 - 3000 cm-1 a lower intensity and sharp stretching vibration of the C-H bond can be seen, corresponding to lipids. In general, the intensity of the control trays was higher than those of T5. There was variation in the 1055 and 1027 cm-1 peaks (carbohydrate vibrations) because in the starch structure they are considered sensitive to molecular changes (Villanueva et al., 2023). The decrease of peak intensities could be caused by the absorbance of cellulose molecules, to the decrease of the amount of starch in the matrix and to the destruction of covalent bonds in thermoforming.

3.2.5. Analysis of the crystalline structure

The RDX diffractogram of the T5 treatment identified the crystal structure (Figure 4). In general, two narrow peaks were observed at 2θ =16.83° and 2θ = 22.69°, with the second one having the most pronounced peak. The peaks are more pronounced at high fiber levels, probably due to the crystallinity of cellulose in the fiber (Cabanillas et al., 2019); it is also attributed to the crystallinity of amylose, which indicates that gelatinization of the tray starch is in­complete. Mello & Mali (2014) state that, if the peaks do not appear in a pronounced form or are of less intensity and width, it is due to the gelatinization that occurs during the cooking process, they are called semi-crystalline, predominating in the amor­phous region. Starch trays with avocado seeds pre­sented similar behavior (De Dios-Avila et al., 2022).

3.2.5. Morphology analysis

Figure 5 shows the results of the SEM analysis performed on the T5 formulation tray and the control. It was observed that in the cross section, cellulosic sandwich-type air cavities were formed, with two dense outer layers comprised on the tray surfaces.

These cellulosic cavities are formed due to the contact of the dough with the hot mold, supersaturating with water vapor, until gelation and drying of the dough (Aguirre et al., 2023; Cruz, 2021). The control tray presented a lower thickness, inside it showed the two thin outer layers, the cellulosic cavities are relatively smaller in quantity, large and fusiform, due to the amount of water that comes out during thermoforming and cell rupture (Cabanillas et al., 2019). In the T5 treatment, there was a partial reduction in the size of the cellulosic voids, attributed to an increase in quantity and irregular distribution due to fiber addition. This phenomenon, as noted by Ferreira et al. (2020) and Silva et al. (2020), is caused by fiber interference in the matrix, resulting in higher density and thickness observed in the structures' walls. Increasing fiber content, according to these studies, leads to a decrease in internal porosity.

Figure 3. Molecular vibrational spectra measured in FTIR for biodegradable trays of the control (umari seed starch only) and Formulation T5 (87.50% umari seed starch +12.50% corn cob flour).

Figure 4. X-ray diffraction (XRD) of biodegradable tray of control (umari seed starch only) and Formulation T5 (87.50% umari seed starch +12.50% corn cob flour).

Figure 5. Micrographs obtained by SEM for biodegradable trays of control (umari seed starch only) and T5 formulation (87.50% umari seed starch +12.50% corn cob flour).

4. Conclusions

The present research has demonstrated the feasibility of developing biodegradable trays using waste materials such as umari seeds and corn cob. Using the thermoforming technique, a formulation composed of 87.50% umari seed starch and 12.50% corn cob meal was found to exhibit favorable chemical, physical and mechanical characteristics, suggesting its potential as a substitute for plastic or other petroleum-derived materials.

Future research could analyze the formulations proposed in this study, to explore the possible applications of these biodegradable trays in the packaging of fruits, vegetables, tubers, cereals, legumes, flours, meats, as well as processed foods, where criteria such as shelf life, sensory acceptability, preservation of nutritional and bioactive properties are evaluated, without ruling out the use of these trays in non-food industries.

Declarations conflict of interest

None of the authors has any conflict of interest in this research.

Author Contribution

Alexandra Huertas: Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation. Presly Barrios: Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation. María de Fátima Arevalo-Oliva: Resources, Investigation, Methodology. Any Córdova – Chang: Investigation, Data curation. Beetthssy Z. Hurtado-Soria: Validation, Writing – original draft. Eudes Villanueva: Supervision, Visualization, Writing—review and editing. José González-Cabeza: Methodology, Investigation. Gilbert Rodríguez: Investigation, Conceptualization. Elza Aguirre: Supervision, Funding acquisition, Project administration.

ORCID

A. Huertas  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5690-8622

P. Barrios  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5264-4148

M. de F. Arevalo-Oliva  https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3432-9843

A. Córdova-Chang  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2179-0641

B. Z. Hurtado-Soria  https://orcid.org/0009-0008-9012-7975

E. Villanueva  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9737-5156

J. González-Cabeza  https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3022-9423

G. Rodríguez  https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2981-1213

E. Aguirre https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1659-9874

References

Aguilar, R., Valiente, Y., Oliver, D., Franco, C., Méndez, F., Luna, C., & Diaz, F. (2018). Inadecuado uso de residuos sólidos y su impacto en la contaminación ambiental. SCIÉNDO, 21(4), 401-407. https://doi.org/10.17268/sciendo.2018.044

Aguirre, E., Dominguez, J., Villanueva, E., Ponce, R., Arevalo, O., Siche, R., González, C., & Rodríguez, G. (2023). Biodegradable trays based on Manihot esculenta Crantz starch and Zea mays husk flour. Food Packaging and Shelf Life, 38, 101129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fpsl.2023.101129

Bergel, B. F., Dias Osorio, S., Da Luz, L. M., & Santana, R. M. C. (2018). Effects of hydrophobized starches on thermoplastic starch foams made from potato starch. Carbohydrate Polymers, 200, 106–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.07.047

Bergel, B.F., da Luz L.M., & Santana, R.M.C. (2017). Comparative study of the influence of chitosan as coating of thermoplastic starch foam from potato, cassava and corn starch. Prog Org Coat, 106, 27–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.porgcoat.2017.02.010

Berto, A., da Silva, A.F., Visentainer, J.V., Matsushita, M., & de Souza, N.E. (2015). Proximate compositions, mineral contents and fatty acid compositions of native Amazonian fruits, Food Research International, 77, 441–449. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODRES.2015.08.018.

Bhatia, S.K., Jagtap, S.S., Bedekar, A.A., Bhatia, R.K., Patel, A.K., Pant, D., Banu, J.R., Rao, C.V., Kim, Y.-G., & Yang, Y.-H. (2020). Recent developments in pretreatment technologies on lignocellulosic biomass: Effect of key parameters, technological improvements, and challenges. Bioresour. Technol, 300, 122724. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2019.122724

Bovo, M., Giani, N., Barbaresi, A., Mazzocchetti, L., Barbaresi, L., Giorgini, L., Torreggiani, D., & Tassinari, P. (2022). Contribution to thermal and acoustic characterization of corn cob for bio-based building insulation applications. Energy and Buildings, 262, 111994. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2022.111994

Cabanillas, A., Nuñez, J., Cruz-Tirado, J., Vejarano, R., Tapia-Blácido, D., Arteaga, H., & Siche, R. (2019). Pineapple shell fiber as reinforcement in cassava starch foam trays. Polymers and Polymer Composites, 27(8), 496-506. https://doi.org/10.1177/0967391119848187

Cheng, Z., Li, J., He, G., Su, M., Xiao, N., Zhang, X., Zhong, L., Wang, H., Zhong, Y., Chen, Q., Chen, Y., & Liu, M. (2024). Biodegradable packaging paper derived from chitosan-based composite barrier coating for agricultural products preservation. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 136112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.136112

Cruz, R. (2021). Effect of the proportion of fiber and starch obtained from the banana pseudostem (Musa acuminata) on the properties of biodegradable trays. [Tesis para optar el grado de Ingeniero]. Trujillo, Perú: Universidad Nacional de Trujillo. https://renati.sunedu.gob.pe/handle/sunedu/2992267

Cruz-Tirado, J. P., Siche, R., Cabanillas, A., Díaz-Sánchez, L., Vejarano, R., & Tapia- Blácido, D. R. (2017). Properties of baked foams from oca (Oxalis tuberosa) starch reinforced with sugarcane bagasse and asparagus peel fiber. Procedia Engineering, 200, 178-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.07.026

Cruz-Tirado, J. P., Vejarano, R., Tapia, B., Barraza, J., & Siche, R. (2019). Biodegradable foam tray based on starches isolated from different Peruvian species. International journal of biological macromolecules, 125, 800-807. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.12.111

De Dios-Avila, N., Tirado-Gallegos, J. M., Estrada-Virgen, M. O., Rios-Velasco, C., Luna-Esquivel, G., Zamudio-Flores, P. B., Isiordia-Aquino, N., & Campos, O. J. C. (2022). Structural and physicochemical characterization of avocado seed starches modified by high-temperature acid hydrolysis. Revista Bio Ciencias, 9. https://doi.org/10.15741/revbio.09.e1272

Días, J. F., & Acuña, J. G. (2022). Uso de almidón para el desarrollo de bandejas biodegradables. Journal of Agro-Industry. Sciences, 4(2), 69–77.

Ediyilyam, S., George, B., Shankar, S. S., Dennis, T. T., Wacławek, S., Černík, M., & Padil, V. V. T. (2021). Películas compuestas de nanopartículas de quitosano, gelatina y plata para aplicaciones de envasado de alimentos biodegradables. Polymers, 13(11), 1680. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13111680

El Menofy, N. G., & Khattab, A. M. (2023). Plastics Biodegradation and Biofragmentation. In: Ali, G.A.M., Makhlouf, A.S.H. (eds) Handbook of Biodegradable Materials. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09710-2_22

Emadian, S. M., T.Onay, T., & Demirel, B. (2017). Biodegradation of bioplastics in natural environments. Waste Management, 59, 526-536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.10.006

Ferreira, D., Molina, G., & Pelissari, F. (2020). Biodegradable trays based on cassava starch blended with agroindustrial residues. Composites Part B: Engineering, 183, 107682. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.107682

Freitas, L. C., Sousa Cantão, M. B., Carvalho, V. S., Silva dos Santos, R. W., Corazza, M. L., & Masson, M. L. (2024). Compressed n-propane extraction of umari pulp oil: A rich Amazon source of β-carotene and omega-9. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids, 213, 106369, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2024.106369.

Gandam, P. K., Chinta, M. L., Gandham, A. P., Pabbathi, N. P. P., Konakanchi, S., Bhavanam, A., Atchuta, S. R., Baadhe, R. R., & Bhatia, R. K. (2022). A New Insight into the Composition and Physical Characteristics of Corncob—Substantiating Its Potential for Tailored Biorefinery Objectives. Fermentation, 8, 704. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation8120704

Ismail, S. A., Nour, S. A., & Hassan, A. A. (2022). Valorization of corn cobs for xylanase production by Aspergillus flavus AW1 and its application in the production of antioxidant oligosaccharides and removal of food stain. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology, 41, 102311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcab.2022.102311

Kaisangsri, N., Kerdchoechuen, O., & Laohakunjit, N. (2014). Characterization of cassava starch-based foam blended with plant proteins, kraft fiber, and palm oil. Carbohydr Polym, 110, 70–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.03.067

Kumar, N. P., & Saha, N. D. (2021). Drying Kinetics of Maize Cob Using Mathematical Modelling. Journal of Agricultural Engineering (India), 58(1), 40-49. https://doi.org/10.52151/jae2021581.1733

Lawton, J. W., Shogren, R. L. & Tiefenbacher, K. F. (1999). Effect of batter solids and starch 109 type on the structure of baked starch foams. Cereal Chemistry, 76(5), 682–687. https://doi.org/10.1094/CCHEM.1999.76.5.682

Li, S., Wang, Y., Xu, W., & Shi, B. (2020). Natural Rubber-Based Elastomer Reinforced by Chemically Modified Multiscale Leather Collagen Fibers with Excellent Toughness. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 8(13), 5091-5099. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b07078

Machado, C., Benelli, P., & Tessaro, I. (2017). Sesame cake incorporation on cassava starch foams for packaging use. Industrial Crops and Products, 102, 115-121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2017.03.007

Machado, C. M., Benelli, P., & Tessaro, I. C. (2020). Study of interactions between cassava starch and peanut skin on biodegradable foams. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 147, 1343–1353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.10.098

Marengo, V., Vercelheze, A. & Mali, S. (2013). Biodegradable composites based on cassava starch and waste from Agro-Industry. Quimica Nova, 36(5), 680-685.

Meijer, L. J. J., Van Emmerik, T., Van Der Ent, R., Schmidt, C., & Lebreton, L. (2021). More than 1000 rivers account for 80% of global riverine plastic emissions into the ocean. Science Advances, 7(18), eaaz5803. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaz5803

Mello, L., & Mali, S. (2014). Use of malt bagasse to produce biodegradable baked foams made from cassava starch. Industrial Crops and Products, 55, 187-193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.02.015

Moshood, T. D., Nawanir, G., Mahmud, F., Mohamad, F., Ahmad, M. H., & AbdulGhani, A. (2022). Biodegradable plastic applications towards sustainability: A recent innovations in the green product. Cleaner Engineering and Technology, 6, 100404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clet.2022.100404

Oliveira, R., Bonametti, O., Bilcka, A., Zanelac J., Grossmanna, E., & Yamashitaa, F. (2018). Biodegradable trays of thermoplastic starch/poly (lactic acid) coated with beeswax. Industrial Crops & Products, 112, 481 – 487.

Onyeaka, H., Obileke, K., Makaka, G., & Nwokolo, N. (2022). Current Research and Applications of Starch-Based Biodegradable Films for Food Packaging. Polymers, 14(6), 1126. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14061126

Ordoñéz, P., Aguirre, V., Flores, J. (2001). Aprovechamiento integral del umarí (Poraqueiba sericea Tulasne) en la industria de alimentos. Revista Amazónica de Investigación Alimentaria, 1(1), 30 – 37.

Pandey, P., Dhiman, M., Kansal, A., & Subudhi, S.P. (2023). Plastic waste management for sustainable environment: techniques and approaches. Waste Dispos Sustain Energy, 6,1-18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42768-023-00134-6

Silva, M. de L., Silva, W. J. dos S., & Pereira, A. K. L. S. (2020). Aproveitamento de resíduos vegetais como alternativa na fabricação de embalagens biodegradáveis / Use of vegetable waste as an alternative in the manufacture of biodegradable packaging. Brazilian Journal of Development, 6(11), 86238–86250. https://doi.org/10.34117/bjdv6n11-155

Silva, N. A. C. (1997). Caracterización de los aceites crudo, neutro y decolorado de la pulpa y cascara de la fruta silvestre Paraqueiba serices Tulasne «UMARI». Grasas y Aceites, 48, 11–16. https://doi.org/10.3989/gya.1997.v48.i1.769.

Tapia-Blácido, D. R., Aguilar, G. J., De Andrade, M. T., Rodrigues-Júnior, M. F., & Guareschi-Martins, F. C. (2021). Trends and challenges of starch-based foams for use as food packaging and food container. Trends In Food Science & Technology, 119, 257-271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2021.12.005

USDA. (2024). Department of Agriculture. (n.d.). Production – com. https://fas.usda.gov/data/production/commodity/0440000

Vercelheze, A., Oliveira, A., Rezende, M., Muller, C., Yamashita, F., & Mali, S. (2013). Physical Properties, Photo- and Bio-degradation of Baked Foams Based on Cassava Starch, Sugarcane Bagasse Fibers and Montmorillonite. Journal of Polymers and the Environment, 21(1), 266-274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-012-0455-0

Vercelheze, A. E. S., Fakhouri, F. M., Dall'Antonia, L. H., Urbano, A., Youssef, E. Y., Yamashita, F., & Mali, S. (2012). Properties of baked foams based on cassava starch, sugarcane bagasse fibers and montmorillonite. Carbohydr Polym, 87(2), 1302–1310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2011.09.016

Villanueva, E., Glorio-Paulet, P., Giusti, M.M., Sigurdson, G.T., Yao, S., & Rodríguez-Saona, L.E. (2023). Screening for pesticide residues in cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) by portable infrared spectroscopy. Talanta, 257, 124386, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2023.124386

Zhu, L., Zhu, J., Zuo, R., Xu, Q., Qian, Y., & An, L. (2022). Identification of microplastics in human placenta using laser direct infrared spectroscopy. The Science of the Total Environment, 856, 159060. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159060

Zwawi, M. (2021). A Review on Natural Fiber Bio-Composites, Surface Modifications and Applications. Molecules, 26(2), 404. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26020404