REVIEW                      

Indicator values for food shelf life prediction: A review

Teófilo Espinoza-Tellez1* ; Roberto Quevedo-León1 ; Oscar Diaz-Carrasco1

1  Departamento de Acuicultura y Recursos Agroalimentarios, Programa Fitogen, Universidad de Los Lagos, Avenida Alberto Fuchslocher 1305, Región de los Lagos, Osorno, Chile.

* Corresponding author: teofilo.espinoza@ulagos.cl (T. Espinoza-Tellez).

Received: 14 December 2023. Accepted: 5 July 2024. Published: 16 July 2024.

Abstract

The short time that people have to cook their own food has led industries to satisfy the need for ready-to-eat products. This has motivated a progressive increase in studies that can determine the time at which the product can be safely consumed (shelf life). There are several methods for determining the shelf life of products; but regardless of the method used, the key is to know the minimum and/or maximum values of the indicators that define their deterioration. These values of spoilage indicators can change according to the compositional conditions of the food or the conditions under which it is stored during its shelf life. This review provides values for indicators used in tests for the determination of food shelf life, according to their nature, and environmental conditions, as way to be used by researchers as a reference in their predictions. The results of this research show scientific evidence through published articles about indicator values, their changes, referring to food shelf life kinetics. These values can be used for the prediction of food shelf life, for comparison purposes with their respective studies. It will be of importance for consumers, who will be able to use these values as a reference in the storage of these products. Shelf life indicator values for foods not considered in this work should be evaluated or experimented with in future work.

Keywords: Food; indicators of spoilage; shelf life; maximum values; minimum values.

HTTPS://DOI.ORG/ https://doi.org/10.17268/sci.agropecu.2024.032

Cite this article:

Espinoza-Tellez, T., Quevedo-León, R., & Diaz-Carrasco, O. (2024). Indicator values for food shelf life prediction: A review. Scientia Agropecuaria, 15(3), 429-448.

1. Introduction

The shelf life of a food is defined as the time in which the product has lost its minimum quality characteristics, these can be physical, biochemi­cal, microbiological and sensory (Bassey et al., 2022; Kato et al., 2017; Carrillo & Reyes, 2014; Pedros-Garrido et al., 2020; Singh, 2000). After a period during shelf life storage, foods will inevitably reach their expiration date; after this date, it cannot be consumed (Andrade et al., 2023; Wang & Teplitski, 2023). Quality encom­passes many aspects of the food, such as its physical, chemical, microbiological, sensory and nutritional characteristics. Some indicators are more directly associated with the health and safety of products (for example, microbiological indicators); while others define only the loss of quality without necessarily affecting the safety of the consumer. A food generally has several indi­cators that define its shelf life and must be mon­itored in stability experiments over time. These changes may not be detected by consumers; for examples, the loss of bioactive compounds such as some vitamins during their shelf life is a char­acteristic that is not generally observed by con­sumers. Other changes manifest quickly at the level of sensory perception and can be taken more quickly as an immediate control response (Gyawali et al., 2022; Kahlon et al., 2021; Kebeya et al., 2021; Li et al., 2023).

In addition to the information provided to the consumer, it is equally important that the pro­ducer is aware of the changes that may occur in the product over time, as well as the factors that produce these changes (Van der Vossen-Wijmenga et al., 2022). This information serves as a basis for making decisions regarding the type of packaging, care during distribution, and the process that must be carried out according to the target market. With this information, the minimum shelf life that is needed for an adequate market cycle can be visualized from the planning stage, since the cost of replacing the product at the point of sale or the consumer rejection due to perceived sensory changes in the product is extremely high (Clodoveo et al., 2021; Forsido et al., 2021; Halloub et al., 2022; Lee & Robertson, 2022; Liu et al., 2022).

Finally, it must be considered that, if the food is assigned a shelf life that is significantly shorter than the actual life of the product, there is a risk of reducing the marketing time and removing a product from the market that is still suitable for consumption (Bressan & Toledo, 2020; Zielinska et al., 2020). On the contrary, an overestimated shelf life can result in consumers receiving a product not suited for consumption. Therefore, knowing with greater certainty the shelf life of a product and predicting its marketing and consumption cycle is fundamentally important in reducing food loss, hence the importance of this type of study (An et al., 2023; Ktenioudaki et al., 2022; Manthou et al., 2019; Tarlak, 2020).

The length of time a product can remain suitable for consumption without changes in quality or safety may depend on several factors, such as the selection of raw materials, the formulation of the food product, the inhibition of spoilage reactions, the material packaging selected and product storage conditions (Ahari & Naeima-badi, 2021; Bonciu et al., 2022; Fadiji et al., 2023; Ghoshal et al., 2023; Lomate et al., 2021; Moradi et al., 2023; Pedros-Garrido et al., 2018; Pivovarov et al., 2021).

Numerous investigations have been conducted and published in the literature to ascertain the shelf life of foods, using accelerated or non-accelerated methods. The shelf life of a product is a generic concept and relative to the environ­mental conditions until it reaches the final con­sumer. The objective of this review is to show the different values of shelf life and time indicators, which have been used in recent years and dur­ing different investigations; to be compared with the studies themselves. Figure 1 shows an abstract of the review of shelf life indicators in foods.

2. Most used shelf life indicators

In general, many indicators associated with food spoilage can be described, however, a few indi­cators have been recurrently used to determine shelf life transversally to the type of food under study (dairy, meat, milk, cereals, etc.). Although there is no generic standard that allows the selection of representative indicators of the deterioration of a food, since they depend on the characteristics of the product to be studied (compositional factors, environmental factors, packaging used, among other relevant factors); if there are criteria that can be used (Sistková & Cizková, 2024).

Figure 1. shows an abstract of the work on the review of shelf life indicators in food.

Table 1

Values for Shelf life indicators in grains, cereals, flours, legumes

For example, products where the amount of water and the way it is available in the food (available or bound water) are important to consider; this is the case of fruits and vegetables. Figure 2 shows the frequency of use of some of the most used indicators in shelf life studies, according to the type of food; during the last 5 years. Certain indicators are more frequent in a type of food. Thus, moisture content is more frequently used in shelf life studies in the case of cereals, flour, baking products, fruits and vege­tables. Other indicators such as texture and pH are more frequently used in foods with good protein structure, such as meat and seafood products.

3. Physical deterioration indicators

A relevant indicator that affects the shelf life is water content, which can be expressed as water contained in per every 100 grams of food (fresh or dry). Similarly, water activity (Wa), which measures the amount of free water in the food within a value between 0 to 1 (without dimen­sional value), has been widely used to measure it stability. Water, as the universal solvent of life, is responsible for deterioration of food by serv­ing as a means of transport and an element of life in chemical and microbial reactions (Fennema & Tannenbaum, 2008). Other indica­tors in this category are the mechanical proper­ties of the food; which in turn can be affected by both the moisture content; as well as by modifications of other compounds inside. Among these indicators are the texture (measured in g or newton) and the viscosity (Pa·s) of the food (depending on its solid or liquid state). These in­dicators can be measured instrumentally or sensory through a panel of judges.

Color measurement is a transversal physical in­dicator to be considered in food shelf life stud­ies, and it is widely used to improve food quality. There are several ways to express color in food. Instrumentally, predetermined color spaces are used, and their value scale depends on the cho­sen space (RGB, CIELab; HSV, among others). Color can also be measured sensory.

Other indicators, depending on the nature of the product, may be density, water uptake, water loss, particle agglomeration, respiration (in the case of fruits and vegetables), among other physical indicators.

4. Chemical deterioration indicators

Chemical changes inevitably occur during food deterioration. These can arise during handling, processing and storage. Changes in composi­tion often occur; for example, in the acidity con­tent (measuring pH or % acidity %), in the deg­radation of proximal compounds such as lipid content, sugar content (brix) and/ or proteins. Furthermore, these degradations can generate secondary compounds such as volatile nitroge­nous bases (associated with microbial activity), triethylamine, biogenic amines and/ or formal­dehyde formation.

Figure 2. Articles of shelf life indicators in different type of food the 2019 to 2024. The search methodology was performed in the web of science database (scielo, scopus, wos), by subject and the keywords used were: shelf life; type of food (grains, cereals, flours, legumes; fruits and vegetables; fish and seafood; dairy or Milk; meat or beef or burger or poultry) and indicators (moisture, water activity, peroxide value, microbiological, texture, thiobarbituric acid, pH, antioxidant capacity, CIELab, sensory evaluation).

Other types of chemical deterioration during product storage are browning and oxidation of compounds. Browning is an oxidation reaction that can occur by both enzymatic and non-enzymatic action and the best way to quantify it is using color as an indirect indicator of the reaction. Directly, the enzymatic activity of enzymes responsible for catalyzing the reaction can be quantified. Enzymatic browning disrupts compounds responsible for antioxidant capacity, for example, the content of phenols which have been associated with such bioactive property (Anand et al., 2018; Mayookha et al., 2023; Sikora & Swieca, 2018; Yang et al., 2022). Oxidation is another deterioration indicator widely used in shelf life studies; mainly there are the oxidations of lipid compounds, which can be qualified by measuring the peroxide value (POV, an indicator of early lipid oxidation) as well as the content of terminal oxidation compounds can also be oxidized, for example myoglobin in red meat or vitamins in fruits and vegetables. Indicators of chemical importance with bioactive capacities have been included as indicators in the recent years, including the quantification of properties such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and carcinogenic capacity.

5. Microbiological deterioration indicators

Pathogenic microorganisms cannot be present in foods for consumption, the indicators taken into account in shelf life studies are: the content of viable mesophiles (RAM); psychrophile con­tent (Santos et al., 2020), total coliform content, enterobacteria; molds and yeasts. Units are usually expressed in logarithmic units in base 10 of viable cells (CFU) per gram or milliliter. In gen­eral, in the case of viable mesophilic content, the maximum permissible limit has been established at value of 107 CFU/g or ML; except for those products that, due to their nature, may contain higher values (fermented products among others).

6. Sensory deterioration indicators

The quantification of sensory aspects of foods is one of the very useful and necessary aspects in most food shelf life studies. They can be used to corroborate appreciable changes in sensory aspects detected by consumers. Aspects of flavour, color, texture, smell, among others, have been considered in shelf life studies. In this case, such sensory indicators need to be carefully measured through strict evaluated protocols (generally using a Likert scale), due to human subjectivity in evaluation. Since there is no predetermined scale for these evaluations, it is sometimes difficult to make comparisons between studies for the same product, due to the differences in the protocols during the measurement (Freitas & Costa, 2006; Kebeya et al., 2021; Lauteri et al., 2023). Table 1 to 5 report start to end values for shelf life indicators in different foods arbitrarily grouped according to their affinity, and according to the conditions used in the experiments conducted recorded by the scientific literature during the last 5 years.

7. Values for Shelf-life indicators in grains, cereals, flours, legumes

Values of indicators used in physical, chemical, microbiological and sensory shelf life tests for intermediate moisture products such as bread and some cereals (Pande et al., 2024; Wickramaarachchi et al., 2024), as well as those with low free water content such as flours; are shown in Table 1. Whole or partially sifted flours have limited storage stability, while degermed flour is often stable for up to 3 months (Gwirtz & Garcia-Casal, 2014). The shelf life of flour can be very variable depending on the origin and degree of processing (Sylchuk, Tsyrulnikova, Zuiko, & Riznyk, 2021), however, a shelf life of 90 days is estimated for flours with lipid content (>10%). After three months, integral, whole grain or semi-whole grain flours lose quality. Refined flours (<10% fat) can have up to more than a year of shelf life. Bakery and confectionery products considered as intermediate humidity products, fresh are losing their shelf life due to microbiological growth, crumb hardening (retrogradation and moisture loss), less resilient crumb, loss of flavour and rancid aroma. The use of freezing in these products is a current trend, and it is one of the ways to guarantee a product with a longer shelf life to the end consumer, with few changes in its appearance, taste and aroma as long as cold chains are not broken in the storage process.

8. Shelf lie indicators in fruits and vegetables

Values of indicators used in physical, chemical, microbiological and sensory shelf life tests for fruits and vegetables with good free moisture content are shown in Table 2. The expected deterioration of a fruit or vegetable begins because after the optimal ripening point, the tissues damaged by the fruits own enzymatic activity allow the entry and attack of bacteria, fungi and molds. The process leads to the visual change from a ripe vegetable to a rotten one. To control the deterioration of fruits and vegetables, it is necessary to store them in cool, dry and dark place. The speed of enzymatic reactions increases the higher the temperature, the amount of water present in the plant itself and the environmental humidity (Qi et al., 2022; Romanazzi & Moumni, 2022; Zambon et al., 2023). To keep fruits and vegetables fresh for longer periods, it is good to keep them in environmentally friendly packaging that complies with further extending the shelf life of perishable foods (Palanisamy et al., 2024) and to implement simple practices such as avoiding damaging a perishable product and having clear storage temperatures ideally at 5 °C without affecting their texture and flavor without af­fecting their texture and taste (Burdon et al., 2017; Fischer et al., 2011; Inestroza-Lizardo et al., 2018; Liplap et al., 2013; Ogura et al., 1975). The use of semipermeable containers in the care of vegetables such as lettuce, chard, broccoli, or basil that prevent dehydration or loss of water from the products is common. For example, by using perforated bags that have a level of ventilation or opening. Practically all available fruits tolerate a temperature of 5-6 °C in re­frigerators, the only exception being bananas, which are best kept out of the refrigerator (Faradilla et al., 2017; Sanchez-Rivera & Bello-Perez, 2008; Yang et al., 2008).

9. Shelf life indicators in fish and sea foods

Worldwide, at least 10 million tons of seafood products are spoiled or damaged each year during transport or storage. Monitoring the freshness of seafood products in real time has become especially important (Cui et al., 2024). Values of indicators used in physical, chemical, microbio­logical and sensory shelf life tests for seafood (fish and shellfish) are shown in Table 3. Seafood is a highly perish­able food product due to microbiological, chemical and enzymatic reactions, which are adapted to function even at low temperatures; and which are the main causes of the rapid deterioration of its quality (Tavakoli et al., 2022). Currently, refrigeration and frozen storage are the most common meth­ods for preserving fish. However, refrigeration alone cannot provide prolonged shelf life peri­ods, and freezing, although extending shelf life, may worsen sensory characteristics. Therefore, there is a need to preserve seafood for long pe­riods without exposing it to sub-zero tempera­tures (de Rezende et al., 2022).

10. Shelf life indicators in dairy products

Values of indicators used in physical, chemical, microbiological and sensory shelf life tests for dairy products are shown in Table 4. Milk is a nutritious food that has a short shelf life and re­quires careful handling. It is a highly per­ishable food because it is an excellent medium for the growth of microorganisms, especially bacterial pathogens, which can cause product deteriora­tion and illness in consumers. Processing milk allows it to be preserved for days, weeks or months and helps reduce foodborne illnesses. The shelf life of milk can be extended by several days through techniques such as cooling (which is the factor most likely to influence the quality of raw milk) or fermentation. Pasteurization is a procedure by which, through heat treatment, the useful life of milk is prolonged, and the num­ber of possible pathogenic microorganisms is reduced to levels that do not represent a serious danger to health. Milk can be further processed into easily transportable, concentrated, high-value dairy products with long shelf life, such as butter, cheese and ghee (clarified butter). Other studies have been conducted by adding chest­nut shell extract to cheese to improve the nutritional benefits and shelf life of fresh cheese, while reducing food industry waste (Ferreira et al., 2024).

11. Shelf life indicators for meat products

Values of indicators used in physical, chemical, microbiological and sensory shelf life tests for meat products are shown in Table 5. Fresh red meats are highly perishable and their stability depends on intrinsic factors, such as their com­position and initial microbial load (Dusková et al., 2024); and extrinsic factors, such as packaging and storage temperature, which, in the end, is the most important condition for their deterio­ration (González et al., 2014). Lipid oxidation is another variable that can affect the shelf life of meat, and can be detected by changes in fla­vour, color, texture, nutritional value and the formation of possible toxic compounds (Bassey et al., 2022; Bottegal et al., 2023).

Table 2

Values for shelf life indicators in fruits and vegetables

Table 3

Values for Shelf life indicators in fish and sea foods

Table 4

Values for shelf life indicators in dairy products

Table 5

Values for shelf life indicators in meat products

Figure 3. Shows the analysis of keyword co-occurrence. (a) visualization of networks and clusters; (b) visualization of overlapping over time.  The search criteria was performed in the web of science database, by title, year and the keyword used was: shelf life; the food areas searched were (grains or cereal or flours or legumes, fruits and vegetables, fish and seafood, dairy or milk, meat or beef or burger or poultry); period from 2000 to 2024 and using VosViewer (https://www.vosviewer.com/).

This alteration can occur not only as a consequence of auto-oxidation phenomena (oxidative rancidity), but also as a result of the action of microbial lipases (hydrolytic rancidity) (Xia et al., 2023). The con­cern about lipid oxidation is related to the fact that derivatives of this reaction are implicated in the development of cancer, disruption of cell membranes, and the development of cancer (Wright et al., 2017), enzyme disruption and in­activation of protein damage. Lipid oxidation is a series of chemical and biochemical reactions that cause changes in the type and concentra­tion of molecular species present in the food, such as malondialdehyde (Bassey et al., 2022).

12. Current and future challenges

The future challenges in the food industry range from producing more food with fewer resources to feed a rapidly growing world population to developing environmentally sustainable solutions in response to climate change or producing new varieties of foods with nutritional properties that support human health, to informing consumers of the impact of the environmental conditions to which different foods are subjected on their shelf life. Promote the development of procedures to inform consumers of the exact shelf life of foods during prolonged storage. Incorporate new technologies in shelf-life extension to ensure future food supply. Developing new packaging that is environmentally friendly and also extends the shelf life of food. The substitution of animal products for new sources of protein (algae, insects, among others) that are more sustainable. On the other hand, using graphical representations it is feasible to detect information gaps or areas that require further exploration on this topic: The volume of the nodes, combined with the central and peripheral location of these, makes it possible to observe the connections between one concept and others. Figure 3 shows the co-occurrence of the keywords of the analyzed articles, corresponding to life cycle studies and their monitoring indicators. Five clusters are identified in Figure 3(a):

Red cluster: studies concerning shelf life determination with microbial indicators for fermented pro-ducts in general.

Light blue cluster: studies concerning shelf life determination using different processing technologies.

Green cluster: studies concerning shelf life determination of edible films and coatings and their properties.

Yellow cluster: studies concerning shelf life determination of meat products in general.

Purple cluster: studies concerning shelf life determination in poultry in general.

Figure 3(b) identifies the topics, from the oldest to the most recent. Currently, it can be observed that in food shelf-life studies, indicators of bioactive compounds and edible films are being considered. The less recent articles are associated with the shelf life of foods with microbial indicators. It is suggested to carry out shelf life studies in food, focusing on aspects such as bioactive compounds, edible films and nanocomposites, among others.

13. Conclusions

Currently, consumers are more concerned about their health and the environment in which they live, which is why they prefer to consume functional foods that are made with ecological and environmentally friendly packaging since these types of packaging better preserve proteins and antioxidants in the food. The shelf life of food normally depends on the packaging used for distribution in the market; the longer conservation of the product depends on this to protect it from external factors, such as environmental changes, temperature, light, physical changes, chemical, microbiological sensory evaluation, etc.; which may present internal changes and changes in its composition, quality and the shelf life of the product when exposed to unfavorable conditions. Some indicators used to determine the shelf life of foods are pH, humidity, water activity, color, thiobarbituric acid, and microbiological activity, among others.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the FITOGEN program of the Universidad de Los Lagos for their support in carrying out this work.

Conflicts of Interest

No conflicts of interest

Author contributions

T. Espinoza-Tellez: conceptualization, research, writing the initial draft and revision. R. Quevedo-León: research, writing the initial draft, review and supervision. Oscar Diaz-Carrasco: research, revision of the manuscript.

ORCID

T. Espinoza-Tellez  https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1491-1051

R. Quevedo-León  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8132-838X

O. Diaz-Carrasco  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0937-9825

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